Dylan Thomas - And Death Shall Have No Dominion Essays -

Dylan Thomas - And Death Shall Have No Dominion The Author and His Times When, in 1939, W. H. Auden and Christopher Isherwood set sail for the United States, the so-called 'All the fun' age ended. Auden's generation of poets' expectations came to nothing after the end of the Spanish Civil War, and they, disillusioned, left the European continent for good. In the late 1930s the school of Surrealism reached England, and Dylan Thomas was one of the few British authors of the time who were followers of this new trend in the arts. He shared the Surrealist interest in the great abstracts of Love and Death, and composed most of his work according to the rules of Surrealism. His first two volumes, Eighteen Poems and Twenty-five Poems were published in the middle of the decade and of this short surrealistic era as well. Dylan Thomas was declared the Shelley of the 20th century as his poems were the perfect examples of 'new-romanticism' with their 'violent natural imagery, sexual and Christian symbolism and emotional subject matter expressed in a singing rhythmical verse' (Under Siege - Robert Hewison, 1977.). The aim of 'new-romanticism' was setting poets free from W.H. Auden's demand for 'the strict and adult pen'. In 1933 Dylan Thomas sent two of his poems to London, one of which was an earlier version of his famous poem, And Death Shall Have No Dominion. It was dated April 1933 in Thomas's notebook and was published for the first time in the 18 May 1933 issue of the New English Weekly. After its first publication, the poem was altered several times and got its final form in Twenty-five Poems, even though Thomas was not particularly proud of this work of his, and was not sure about publishing it for a second time. The Poem Immediately in its title, the poem has a reference to the New Testament, which was one of Dylan Thomas's main sources of metaphor. The title (and the refrain of the poem as well), 'And Death Shall Have No Dominion' has been taken from the King James Version of the Scriptures, which, with its flowing language and prose rhythm, has had profound influence on the literature of the past 300 years. 'Knowing that Christ being raised from the dead dieth no more; death hath no more dominion over him. For in that he died, he died unto sin once: but in that he liveth, he liveth unto God. Likewise reckon ye also yourselves dead to be dead indeed unto sin, but alive unto God through Jesus Christ our Lord.' Romans 6:9-11 There is another line in the poem, 'Though they sink through the sea they shall rise again;' which resembles a line from the Scripture: 'And the sea gave up the dead which were in it, and death and hell delivered up the dead which were in them: and they were judged every man according to their works.' Revelation 20:13 The assertive optimism of the poem can also be brought into connection with the traditions of evangelical hymns, which is best reflected in the lines 'Though they go mad they shall be sane, Though they sink through the sea they shall rise again; Though lovers be lost love shall not, And death shall have no dominion.' It seems, that it is this assertive optimism Dylan Thomas is trying to impose on the reader, and, perhaps on himself as well in this poem, maybe in order to keep his sanity. Being one of the least obscure of Dylan Thomas's poetry, it was evident, that of his earlier woks, beside Do Not Go Gentle Into That Good Night and The Force That through the Green Fuse Drives the Flower, And Death Shall Have No Dominion would catch public imagination quite easily. The thing in this poem that drew the attention of the everyman was the constancy of hope coming from the notion that everything is cyclical: though the individuals perish, 'they shall rise again', and, though particular loves are lost, love itself continues. The tone of this poem is quite sermon-like, and its atmosphere is rather Christian; yet, the central theme in it is not religion, nor the religious beliefs concerning death but the relationship between man and nature. Thomas claims in the second stanza that deliverance from death is not through

Assess the Reasons of the 1905 Revolution in Russia Essays

Assess the Reasons of the 1905 Revolution in Russia Essays Assess the Reasons of the 1905 Revolution in Russia Essay Assess the Reasons of the 1905 Revolution in Russia Essay Assess the reasons of the 1905 revolution in Russia The build up to 1905 The failure of Tsarâ„ ¢s character- Tsar meant an autocratic country- led by one. Nicholas IIâ„ ¢s character was not built for this- shy man. Little training of the job. Avoided change even though Russia needed it. EXAMPLE: 1896 1300 people killed in the Tsarâ„ ¢s coronation- the Tsar did nothing about it and carried on with the ceremony- out of touch with the people. PEOPLE DENIED BASIC FREEDOMS, for example freedom of press, speech. All linked to the Tsarâ„ ¢s autocratic state. Opposition groups Middle classed liberals wanted more of a say in the way that Russia was run- wanted an elected assembly- felt they were being treated the same as everyone else. They also asked for this because of the way the government had acted with the war and economy- felt it was unnecessary and appalling. The main liberal party was the Kadets- supported by people like lawyers and doctors. Octobrists found support amongst industrialists, businessmen and larger landowners. Called for the assembly, eventually to be the DUMA! The soviets- Started striking on behalf of the industrial workers- wanted better working conditions, pay etc., maybe following suit, having seen the others doing it. The SRâ„ ¢s- Founded in 1901, and believed that the future of Russia was in agrarian socialism- adopted violence into their schemes, such as murdering officials and ministers- The Srâ„ ¢s gained considerable support and outnumbered the SDâ„ ¢s, but didnâ„ ¢t pose a serious threat, however did contribute greatly to the growing unrest between 1901-1904. Behind the peasants. Social Democrats (SDâ„ ¢s)- Influenced heavily by Marxism. Split into two: Bolsheviks Lenin believed that a revolutionary party should be made up of: Small numbers Operate under a central leadership Have a system of small cells (3 people) to make it less easy for the police to infiltrate Job of the party to bring socialist consciousness to the workers and lead them through a revolution. Critics warned this would lead to a dictatorship. Support came mainly from the working class. Attracted more younger, more militant peasant workers who like discipline, firm leadership and simple slogans. MENSHEVIKS They believed: The party should be broad and anybody should be able to join. Be more democratic and allow its members to have a say in policy making Encourage the trade unions to help the working class and improve conditions. Believed that there would be a long period of Bourgeois democratic government during which the workers would develop a class and revolutionary consciousness until they were ready to take over in a socialist revolution. The Mensheviks tended to attract different types of workers and members of the intelligentsia and a broader range of people- more non Russians, especially Jews and Georgians. Peasants- Problems: 1) Poverty, need for more land, high taxes, redemption payments on land. 2) Suffered famines. 3) Increased peasant population- putting more pressure on the land. (LINKED TO THE SOCIAL REVOLUTIONARIES) Workers- 1) Long working hours, terrible working and living conditions. 2) Wanted more political power. (LINKED TO THE SOVIETS) THE WAR WITH JAPAN- The motives behind the war in Japan: 1) Expand in the Far East as they didnâ„ ¢t have much influence in Russia. 2) Obtain an ice free port as most were iced over at some point of the year 3) Distract attention away from Russiaâ„ ¢s own problems- patriotic struggle. Misjudged that Plehve (Interior Minister) was behind the driving force for the War- but Witte played a major part also- he wanted the economy to grow. Russian government deliberately rejected Japanese proposals for the settlement of Korean question hoping that it would provoke a military response. RUSSIA SEVERLY UNDERESTIMATED JAPAN- thought that it was still a backwards country, whereas it had turned itself around. Had reformed and was trying to modernise like the West.Japanese army were FAR BETTER EQUIPPED and BETTER PREPARED than the Russians and won a series of battles: 1) Port Arthur to Japan , Jan 1905. 2) Russian surrender of Mukden, Feb 1905. 3) Russian fleet destroyed at Tsushima, May 1905. Reasons for defeat: UNDERSTIMATION OF JAPANESE STRENGTH. INADEQUATE MILITARY PLANNING POOR STRATEGY AND JAPANS READINESS, STRENGTH AND SKILL This then linked back to the riots and protests that were occurring, as many saw the Russians as WEAK even though they had one of the largest armies. Failure for RUSSIA. People of Russia did not like it. THE ECONOMY- Sergei Witte played a huge part in the economic side of Russia, however there were still some problems: 1) The peasants- Emancipation of the Serfs in 1861- amount of land owned by peasants trebled. This was partly funded by the Peasant Land Bank, which was set up in 1883 but mostly by peasants themselves. This meant: Most plots of land owned were smaller than before- few villagers could afford to expand because of the huge redemption payments which were crippling. Those who could afford were reluctant to take on new land as this then made them responsible for redemption payments; increased profits meant you would have to have a greater share of repayments. Apparent that freed serfs could not afford repayments. By 1875 arrears had reached 22% of the annual payments. However Witte was very successful in getting the industrial revolution alive. He did many things to improve: Witte adopted the gold standard for the rouble in 1897 which meant a fixed exchange rate with currencies for both paper and gold- led to a vast increase in flow of foreign capital in Russia. State spenditure on railways rose to 275 million roubles- much went on the Trans- Siberian Railway- was needed to improve the trade system- Industry etc ( 25 factories were involved with making the track- state loans were available to start factories to provide materials) = BIG BOOST in helping businesses grow etc. BIG GOOD CIRCLE ( From 1892 to 1914 50% of the investment in Russian industry came from foreign investment- largely from FRENCH, BRITISH, GERMAN AND BELGIAN banks= foreign interest and investment and technological expertise. OVERALL VERY IMPRESSIVE- from 1891 to 1900 russian industrial capacity increased by 80% Petrol increased by 450% and railways by 70% IN AN INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION. HOWEVER PROBLEMS AS WELL AS GOOD: 1) Private banks in Russia were weak- 2) State income was very unpredictable- direct taxes accounted for 7.5% in the 1890s 3) Made Russia too dependant on foreign investment and loans. 4) Paid no attention to Russiaâ„ ¢s agricultural needs- (80% of the people were peasants) 5) Under Witteâ„ ¢s policies, urban workers and peasants were taxed heavily and were paid low wages. 6) Economic slump after 1902 led to high unemployment and social tension in towns. 7) Poor harvests in 1900 and 1902 led to starvation and violence in the countryside. However it was very hard for Witte to succeed as he was a very hard man to get along with and made many enemies easily. In 1906, shortly after having managed to gain a big loan from France Witte was forced to resign from government. Witte was never fully recognised for his talents, and he could have been the saviour in modernising Russia. STRIKES ETC, Father Gapon, Bloody Sunday, 1905. Lead up to the 1905 revolution: REASONS FOR IN BRIEF Poor govt: repression, taxation, imcompetent leader. Social unrest- Economic Recession- Bad Harvests Peasants angry over the mortgage repayments- Emanicpation of the Serfs- 1861.# Workerâ„ ¢s angry over unemployment and falling wage- Witte to blame Heavy taxes due to the loans from foreign investment, however he was trying to improve the economic situation- Industrial revolution Fail of a performance against Japan! Fall of Port Arthur, Jan 1905, taking over of town of Mukden, Feb 1905, Russian fleet destroyed, Tshushima, May 1905. TRIGGER CAUSES â€Å" WHAT HAPPENED ETC Bloody Sunday- Father Georgi Gaopn attempted to lead a peaceful march of workers and their families to the winter palace in St Petersburg- intention was to present a petition to the Tsar begging him to use his powerful authority to relieve them of their suffering. HOWEVER, the marches induced panic in the police force and the marchers were charged on by cavalry- no exact figures but around 200 people were killed with many more injured. Even though the Tsar was not at the Winter Palace at the time, he was no longer seen as the protector of the Russian people the little father. Immediate effects: Strikes spreading everywhere- The defeat by Japan made situations worse and the SRâ„ ¢s assassinated Phleve. Public buildings in towns and large private estates in the country were attacked. Land and properties were seized by peasants who squatted in the landlordâ„ ¢s houses. THE PEASANTS FEARED THAT THE GOVT WERE ABOUT TO REPOSSESS THE HOMES OF THOSE WHO WERE UNABLE TO PAY OFF THEIR MORTGAGES IN THE POST-EMANCIAPTION STAGE. This essentially encouraged the non-russian minorities to assert themselves. Georgia declared itself and independant state. Poles demanded a national self-govt. Jews pressed for equal rights. Terrorism against govt officials and landlords KEY DATES January 1905- Revolution BEGINS- Bloody Sunday- Father Gapon- around 200 people killed with many more injured- including women and children. May 1905- Union of Unions formed. June 1905- The Potemkin mutiny- Summer of 1905 the crew of the battleship Prince Potemkin mutinied whilst at sea. The incident started as a protest by the sailors for having to live in such grim conditions- eating rotting food etc. The sailors elected a representative Peter Vakulenchuk to approach the captain- he ordered the man be shot instantaneously. This left the crew to retaliate essentially killing the officers and taking over the ship. However they were on there own with no-one to help them. To try and get support from land they sailed to Odessa where an anti-govt strike was taking place- strikers welcomed the sailors as if they were heroes and placed Vakulenchuks body on a platform to praise him. DEFIANT GESTURE OF SOLIDATRITY. Yet angered the authorities. Troops were ordered to disperse the crowds at the harbour- bayonets fixed the soldiers marched down the steps trampling on those who fell and driving hundreds into the sea- DEATH TOLL RAN INTO THOUSANDS. This then forced th e crews to flee Odessa and they abandoned their ship at a Romanian port, hoping to find sanctuary in a deeper part of Russia. VERY UNSTABLE TIMES- could the Tsar rely on his troops/armed forces, especially as they were coming back from the Japanese War which had been a failure. Witte was needed to try and put all the pieces back together, peace terms with Japan etc. Autumn 1905- Industrial unrest had grown into a strike. In most cities mosly recognised St Petersburg and Moscow workers formed themselves into an elected soviet. The Soviets began as organisations to represent the workerâ„ ¢s demands for better conditions- their potential as bases for political agitation was immediately recognised by revolutionaries. Leon Trotsky (leading Menshevik) became chairmen of the St Petersburg Soviet and organiser of several strikes in the capita The groups that led the revolution The industrial workers The peasantry The reformist middle classes Essentially the revolt was very broad-based that most revolutionaries had been awaiting. Yet, when it came to it it was more accidental than planned. Despite the efforts to make it poilitcal most of the strikes and demonstrations were economically based- been a reaction to industrial recession and bad harvests. It was the tsarists regimeâ„ ¢s ill-judged policies that turned the disturbances of 1905 into a direct challenge to its own authority. SO THE REASONS FOR THE 1905 REVOLUTION IN RUSSIA WERE: THE INADEQUATE LEADERSHIP SKILLS SHOWN BY THE TSAR. THE FAILURE OF THE JAPANESE-RUSSIAN WAR PEASANTS AND THE EMANCIPATION-MORTGAGE PROBLEMS- SUPPORTED BY THE SOCIAL REVOLUTIONARIES- THE PEOPLEâ„ ¢S WILL-TERRORISM. BAD HARVESTS 1900 AND 1902. THE INDUSTRIAL WORKERS WANTING BETTER WORKING CONDITIONS- SOVIETS SET UP AUTUMN 1905. ECONOMIC SLUMP 1902-HIGH UNEMPLOYMENT- HOWEVER WITTE WAS TRYING TO SOLVE PROBLEMS. TRIGGER FROM BLOODY SUNDAY- CAUSED EVEN MORE STRIKES- 200 PEOPLE KILLED ETC. THE POTEMKIN MUNITY- THOUSANDS KILLED. RISING OF THE SOVIET STRIKES FOR MORE FOOD- HIGH UNEMPLOYMENT! OVERCROWDING IN THE CITIES DUE TO THE LARGE NUMBERS OF PEOPLE MIGRATING FROM THE COUNTRYSIDE! HAVING TO PAY HEAVY TAXES DUE TO THE POLICIES MADE BY WITTE- LOANS AND INVESTMENT FROM ABROAD BOUGHT INVALUABLE PRIVILEDGES, BUT MEANT THE PEASANTS AND WORKERS WOULD HAVE TO SUFFER WITH HIGH TAXES!! EQUALS A REVOLUTION!!! What did the Tsar do to try and stop the revolutions The October Manifesto: the following concessions were granted: 1. The creation of a legislative Duma- (a parliament with law making powers) 2. Freedom of speech, assembly and worship. 3. The right of political parties to exist. 4. The legalising of trade unions. EQUALS very satisfied liberals- gained what they wanted- were going to be given more power via the DUMA! November an announcement was made that mortgage payments were to be reduced progressively and eventually abolished altogether= an IMMEDIATE stop in land seizures by peasants and a decline in the lawlessness in the countryside. Industrial workers- the government felt strong enough to crush the Soviets, with the loyal backing from the soldiers returning from Japan. After a five day siege the headquarters of St Petersburg Soviet were stormed and the ringleaders captured (including Trotsky) and arrested. Significance The revolutionaries played a minor part in the revolution- Trotsky the only SD present. The Tsardom came out of the revolution stronger than weaker. The peasants and liberals quickly accepted the Tsars bribes. None of the parties were ready for a revolution. MEANT THAT.. As long as the Tsarist govt was able to keep its nerve and the army remain loyal then protesters would find it very hard to be a serious threat. The Russian economy- 1903-1914 Peter Stolypin appointed president of the council of ministers- july 1906. He was dedicated to strengthen the Tsardom- needed to sort out the peasants. Decided on the wager on the strong. Farmers were encouraged to replace their land with fenced fields, as the strip system was proving to be inefficient- was done in western Europe and proven very successful- so a special land bank was set up to provide funds so that the peasant could buy the land- Stolypins intentions were to create a layer of prosperous, productive peasants whose wealth would turn them into natural supporters of the TSARIST SYSTEM. Why was the Tsar able to survive the 1905 revolution The aim of the revolutionaries- didnâ„ ¢t plan to overthrow the tsar or his government. The rebels were politically and socially divided and the liberals and peasants readily accepted government bribes. Nicholas lost none of his power and came out stronger after the revolution. Mutinies in the armed forces failed to spread (the Potemkin) and forces rallied in defence of the Tsar. Counter argument Events of 1905 were very violent and threatening. Nicholas made concessions such as letting the liberals have power in the sense of the duma and the fundamental laws and the October manifestoooo! Nicholas image was DAMAGED. Plehve assassinated and Witte fell from office. Uh oh ( So Nicholas was able to keep power because he had the armed forces behind him, revolution was not yet ready/needed, everyones needs were different, liberals more power, peasants- emancipation of serfs- 1861- mortgages, and then they even accepted bribes. Nicholas was able to recover himself quickly too- October manifesto listed that the Duma could be set up, free rights and speech for people etc. He was also quick to publish the Fundamental Laws, which declared that he still had ultimate power. SO HE CAME OUT STRONGER THAN EVER! War 1917 Bloody Sunday Causes of 1905 Tsar survive 1917- was the war the main cause The Dumas- had been made up of four main ones- first by reformist parties, second by revolutionaries and right-wing parties-clash, third duma- elections were rigged by Stolypin to produce more co-operative deputies from moderate parties, finally FOURTH DUMA- DOMINATED BY RIGHT RING PARTIES- SOCIAL REFORM CONTINUED, BUT WOULD CRITICISE GOVT The War Inflation- value of money sharply declined, creating instability and high prices- government spending rose from 4 million to 30 million roubles and heavy taxation took place at home. The gold standard was abandoned meaning more notes could be put into circulation- long term it made money practically worthless- resulted in severe inflation which meant that wages doubled put the price of fuel and food quadrupled 1916! Food supplies were evidently short- horses were called up to be used by the army making it harder for food to be produced on the farms- not until 1916 when it began to fall apart- was increased by the fact the army had unlimited usage of the roads- food supplies could not be easily supplied to everyone especially in remote areas. Petrograd suffered particularly badly because they were in such a remote place and because of the population growth. Transport system broke down due to the stresses of war- the attempt to transport millions of troops and masses of supplies to the war fronts created unbearable pressures- by 1916 575 stations were no longer capable of handling freight. The army- fought well but were undermined by the lack of supplies and and poor organisation- lack of equipment for soldiers- lack of liason and administration between the govt and departments responsible for supplies. Role of the tsar- Nicholas IIâ„ ¢s fateful decision to become commander in chief made survival of tsardom dependant on military success. Morale- was high to begin with but gradually began to decline- loads of casualties on the front line and declining supplies at home. Strikes were imminent: began on the 18th February by the workers of the putilov steel works- strikes due to the rumours that there were to be bread ration cuts. Many flocked to the streets including women supporting the rights for women on international womenâ„ ¢s day- only significant because it shows the weakness at the heart of the government- no authorities were able to bring the strikes to an end- even those in the police force were quick to join in with the protests leaving no-one to defend the country- Tsar by himself unlike that of 1905- Tsar being turned on by those who were once closest supporters of himself. ANOTHER FACTOR- lost support from the soliders authorities- as seen before- lots of soldiers had started to desert due to the lack of morale and the little equipment they had been supplied with- General Khabalov called on the garrison to retain order in in Petrograd but were only met with the opposite reaction- 26th February 150,000 people had deserted the army- showed the support was really not there for the tsar- vulnerable position- most were away fighting for the tsar in the war, and those left were leaving him- no-one to help crush the revolts- were imminent for the Tsarâ„ ¢s surivial- therefore waar was most important without the war- troops would be at home- would still be morale etc. THE MOST IMPORTANT FACTOR MAYBE THE ROLE OF THE TSAR- promised change in the 1905 october manifesto- quickly backed up by the fundamental laws which stated that he would always have ultimate power- little change did actually occur even though he promised it- his image was truly damaged from 1905- The tsar went off to war- made himself the general- poor organisational skills etc- and went to Mugilov- 400 miles away! Left Rasputin and the Tsarina in charge- 1915- very unpopular with the Russian public- tsarina was german- wasnâ„ ¢t seen as the leader of a RUSSIAN nation! Rasputin- ladys man- wasnâ„ ¢t one to run a country! Tsar and the dissolution of the Duma- thought it best to get rid of it because the Tsar said it was best to focus on the war- met with resistance by the members, who came to form the progressive bloc.- Alexander Kerensky- a member of the progressive bloc called for the Tsar to stand out- ultimate action if defiance! People were standing up against him! Therefore the tsar was seen to be very stubborn and disregarded people- ignored peoples views- dissolution of the Duma- left the country in charge with hugely unpopular people- went ahead with the fundamental laws- really wasnâ„ ¢t interested in the state of the country but his own affairs- Fact was he was hugely imcompetent with everything he did- how could he run a country War was a shambles, policies were shambles, wife was ashambles, he was a shambles! Ahhhh! Petrograd- one small place yet had a huge impact, where all the strikes were held- one little place could hold such a big difference, No other places were rebelling- could so have easily joined! THEREFORE, the war was probably the main factor because: Heavy inflation- this led to the risings in the towns, because they thought their bread supplies were going to be cut off- 18th February- followed by women wanting to help- international womenâ„ ¢s day Morale was extremely low- led to soldiers deserting- around 150,000 had deserted by June- didnâ„ ¢t want to support the Tsar. General Khabalov ordered for the garrison to hold back Petrograd ( but the police force were on their side! No-one was confident!- the tsar relied so heavily on them to squash any defiance! The provisional bloc- duma was disollutionised- called for it during the war- everyone to work together= ministers refused so formed the provisional bloc- Alexander Kerensky asked for him to stand down- BIG SHOW OF POWER! â€Å" 2nd most important! Bolsheviks werenâ„ ¢t involved- most in hiding- Lenin returned in 1917! Petrograd!

Experimental Design Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Experimental Design - Essay Example c troponin levels and electrocardiograms were taken at the time of admission and then daily during the first week, subsequently on alternate months and then on a weekly basis, up to the discharge or demise of the patient in all patients that were admitted into the combined fifteen-bed university-affiliated surgical and medical intensive care unit for a period of two months. In addition to this data, additional data was collected from the patient medical chart, the ICU computerized clinical information system, and the hospital laboratory system in case report forms and then entered into an Excel program for statistical analysis. The main constituents of the statistical analysis consisted of the comparing of continuous variables employing the Kruskall-Wallis non-parametric tests and the Mann-Whitney paired test for the purpose of exploring the differences in groups. Categorical variables were analyzed using Pearson Chi-square tests or Fisher’s exact tests depending on appropriateness of the test. Screening investigations of cardiac troponin levels with ECGs helped to detect more myocardial infarction than through clinical diagnosis alone. Yet the length of stay of the patients in the intensive care unit and the hospital and the mortality rates remained the same as was experienced with patients whose myocardial infarction was detected by the ICU team and by screening. The study was conducted only for two month period in all patients admitted into the intensive care unit, which led to getting an evaluation of only of 103 patients. The sample size is too small for getting suitable results that are valid and acceptable. The problem of validity is pronounced, as there is variability of the association of elevated of elevated cardiac troponins in critically ill patients with mortality and other adverse outcomes, which calls for a larger sample size. This problem is accepted by the authors. Elevated cardiac troponin levels are frequently seen in critically ill

Art Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Art - Essay Example All of these very fascinating questions are best answered by looking at what society considers â€Å"significant† or â€Å"beautiful†. From these examples, one might be able to find common characteristics between them and maybe empirically approach a theory of the good in art. This all presupposes, however, that there are objective characteristics that one can isolate and call â€Å"art† or â€Å"beauty†. It very well may be that all art and all beauty are subjective in the sense that they are nothing separate from the object placed next to the art exhibit by chance. Regardless, assuming there is some objective nature to art and beauty, there are theories of what it means for an object to be considered art. However, none of these theories seems to be sufficient to explain exactly what separates the art exhibit from the other object. An art object is an aesthetic object is designed specifically for aesthetic appeal. The question is why do human beings take the time and resources to create the aesthetically appealing art object. One way to answer this is by saying that art fulfils a basic human necessity: an instinct that requires rhythm, balance, harmony, melody, and other things from our natural existence. As an illustration of this view, the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle once wrote that art is a representation of reality. Because nature is full of change, decay, and growth, nothing remains completely constant. However, art has the ability to stand the test of time, and communicate universal themes of human life long after the artist and the society in which it was created has fallen away. Aristotle wrote, â€Å"Imitation, then, is one instinct of our nature. Next, there is the instinct for 'harmony' and rhythm, meters being manifestly sections of rhythm. Persons, therefore, starting with this natural gift developed by degrees their special aptitudes, till their rude improvisations gave birth to Poetry† (Aristotle). For instance, art made long ago by ancient peoples in the Cave of Chauvet-Pont-d'Arc, representations of rhinoceroses and other objects significant to the lives of the people who lived at that time. Although the creators of the art may have had a certain social intention in creating the representations, this psychological intuition about the purpose of art suggests that they had a basic human instinct in seeking rhythm and harmony in nature. In the works of Vermeer in particular, we see representations of daily life throughout his galleries. However, there are obvious perfections in the way that Vermeer presented these time capsules of life in 17th century Holland. For instance, Vermeer produced transparent colors by applying paint in loosely granular layers. This technique, among many, set Vermeer apart from his contemporaries because it made his artworks a perfect aesthetic representation. Because people seek art for its harmony and rhythm, they expect it to be more perfect than natur e itself, according to this theory of the purpose of art. Representation as the goal of art is a provocative theory. Another notion of art’s purpose comes from other well-known aesthetic philosophers who thought of art more as an expression of imagination than as an unconscious instinct or desire. Under this different conception,

Explication of Out, Out by Robert Frost Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Explication of Out, Out by Robert Frost - Essay Example These are themes which can be found in other poems by Robert Frost as well. An explication of the poem on this theme will show that the main thesis of the poem is that, no matter how sad an event such as death is, life must go on. Interestingly the opening of the poem keeps the reader constantly on edge, unsure whether something bad or good will come in the end. The first six lines of the poem set up a scene that sounds very nice. Although the first line does sound menacing, that is soon done away with by describing in great detail the lovely â€Å"sweet-scented stuff† that the sawdust gives off â€Å"when the breeze drew across it† (l.3) and showing the â€Å"Five mountain ranges one behind the other / Under the sunset far into Vermont† (l.5-6). These lines, taken together, make it sound as though the poem is going to be an ideal one about the pleasures of work in natural beauty and so on. However, line seven returns the menace of the first line by repeating tha t â€Å"the saw snarled and rattled, snarled and rattled† (l.7). This is again undone two lines later, in a line which both reduces the tension and immediately adds to it again. The poem says that â€Å"nothing happened† but then makes this uncertain by adding that the â€Å"day was all but done† (l.9). From here the subject matter of the poem becomes more clear. Everything after this point has a melancholy feel to it, as though the reader is aware of how the poem is going to end before actually getting there. In the rest of the poem the boy loses his hand and has to get it amputated. He does not want it to be removed because he considers it to be the same as death. This is implied in the line that the boy â€Å"saw all was spoiled† (l.23). Because of this they have to sedate him, which ironically leads to his death when he does not recover from the anesthetic (l.26). It is clear that the boy's own sadness at his death, or even his lack of belief at the f act that he will eventually die, since he has lost his hand, actually leads to his immediate death much sooner than it should have happened. It is common for Robert Frost's poetry to show this "kind of dark design" which "comes like a thief in the night to steal away innocence" (Rath 163). In other words, the poet is often concerned with death, and the sadness--or loss of innocence--that it causes to mankind. However, even though he does have this common theme which runs throughout his work, some of his poems show that life will go on after this dark design has completed. These poems show that "man cannot be totally gloomy-shut," he cannot just shut himself away and feel depressed all the time about death (Rath 164). Instead, he will have to go on with his life. Interestingly, â€Å"Out, Out,† fits well into both categories. It is an exploration not only of he effect of death on other people, but of the loss of innocence of the boy who, when he loses his hand, sees his own de ath arriving. In this regard, since he was not able to move on as he should have, he actually dies, and is really unable to move on forever. Carl Runyon points out in his discussion of the poem that â€Å"we should not assume that the sister returned to the normal course of her life as quickly as did the doctor, or that the unseen parents immediately resumed their lives as if nothing had happened† (Runyon). Runyon says that the quickness of the poem's ending does not suggest the ending of the poem is â€Å"callous,† just that it is â€Å"realistic† (Runyon). Taken as a whole, the poem suggests that "there is a line between the living and the dead that cannot be crossed," which is also expressed in several other poems by Frost (Fagan 157). This might be seen as a cynical view of life, and

Expatriate Management in MNCs as Knowledge Management

Expatriate Management in MNCs as Knowledge Management Expatriate Management in MNCs as a Form of Knowledge Management and its Applicability in Reduction of Soaring Turnover Rates: a Case Study Approach Abstract This dissertation in International Human Relations addresses the potential of expatriate management as a tool of knowledge management and its applicability to the reduction of turnover rates in a global economy. Companies today cannot survive and prosper without some form of globalisation. When an appropriately planned expatriate program is utilised, the flow of information supports knowledge transfer, which can enhance the entire functionality of the company. The specific vehicle for knowledge transfer will be cross-cultural training, with its generalisable lessons for the global corporations. In this research, the case study approach is utilised along with the study of archival materials. After extensive research into the United States Peace Corp and its handling of expatriates, Tyco Flow Control/KTM Company of Japan and Electrolux of Sweden, supported by an extensive review of current literature, this dissertation reaches the conclusion that the decision on whether or not to use expatriates and in what fashion they should be used must be based on a combination of the needs of the company and the companys organisational structure. Expatriation is expensive and companies should plan for success if they intend to utilise an expatriate program. However, the knowledge gained from the study of expatriate programs can be successfully utilised to mange the spread of knowledge throughout the organisation and to develop interventions, which will lower the overall rate of turnover within an organisation. Certainly, we cannot afford to ignore these lessons. Chapter One Introduction 1.1 Chapter Introduction There are a number of challenges involved in the development of multi-national corporations (MNCs) in todays era of globalisation. Increasingly the trend has been for companies to utilise expatriates on tasks that are critical to the companys operation or continued success. MNCs use expatriates for a number of reasons. In general, the perception exists that it is easier to control an employee from the home office, carefully chosen and indoctrinated in the companys culture. Thus, the concept of corporate control plays a large role in the selection and the use of expatriates, but it is certainly not the only reason. Many times, expatriates have specialties that the company believes it can export when developing the global market. In addition, expatriates who have been thoroughly trained in the companys procedures can be very valuable during the process of entering new markets and setting up the office and administrative under structure that inevitably follows such expansion. Human resources management inevitably becomes more complex in an international venue. Companies must consider not only the corporate culture and the national culture of their home country, but also the national culture of the country or countries which they are expanding into. Expansion into other nations also brings with it a myriad of laws and regulations that may well conflict with the home countrys laws or rules. The situation becomes more complex with each additional field office or subsidiary that the company acquires or develops. 1.2 Context There is a great deal of research that suggests that the way companies manage their human resources contributes to whether or not the company will succeed or fail (Tung, 1984). International human resources management can make or break a new expansion, and poor management of expatriates within established MNCs can send the company into a crisis. Companies must be able to communicate with their employees and to coordinate actions, activities, and regulatory compliance between a number of corporate and governmental entities. Failure to do so successfully can affect the bottom line of any multi-national corporation or company, and can destabilise a company that is not experienced in dealing with international human resources. Financially, there is a great deal at stake for the MNC which utilises expatriates. The obvious cost, of course, occurs if the project that the expatriate is assigned to fails. Such a significant financial blow can, as pointed out, destabilise a company. There are many other costs associated with expatriate management, however, that may not be obvious on the surface. Employees must be recruited into the programme and trained. Their families should receive training regarding the area of assignment. Moving or relocation costs are significant even if the family travels light. Many companies provide housing assistance in the country of assignment, and trips back to the home country on a scheduled basis. All of these expenses add up. One additional expense that must be considered is the replacement of the employee who enters the expatriate programme. If the employee is already a member of the organisation, his or her transfer to a foreign office will leave an internal position that must be filled. MNCs must also consider the ramifications to the company if their expatriate behaves in a fashion that the host country members consider improper. The amount of ill will that can be generated throughout the host community can be nearly incalculable. Even though it is an indirect cost, it can be as devastating as a more direct financial loss. Even in the best of cases, when the expatriation fails without loss of business and the expatriate returns quietly to the home base, the expatriate may leave the company. When this happens, the company loses a valuable employee and the investment that went along with that employees training. When the problem of failed expatriation is looked at from these perspectives, it becomes clear that the financial repercussions may be greater than they appear at first glance, but the loss of money is only a small part of the overall problem of expatriate loss. Indeed, the operation of the entire organisation can be threatened, along with the investments from the companys stakeholders and employees. This provides a great deal of impetus for investigation of the issues related to expatriate management and reduction of turnover both nationally and internationally. In the past, one might make the argument that expatriates and local employees are not in the same category. After all, expatriates face other cultures on a routine, day to day basis. As a matter of fact, they are immersed in their home culture. As Hofstede (2003) points out, every culture defines its own version of being socially correct. These constraints govern how cultures do business. It has become big business to help companies and individuals understand the different ways that host companies interpret what we may consider average, day to day gestures. The various governments recognised this concept long ago. Virtually every country provides some form of training in culture applications for ambassadors and members of the state and foreign service divisions. Nevertheless, business has been slow to adopt that concept. Even when MNCs recognise the need to provide this training, they may not fully understand the impact that the difference in culture has on the employee. The employee generally travels with family, and it is as important to acknowledge that family members and their success at adaptation have a large input into whether or not the employee adapts successfully. Thus, MNCs that fail to include all the family members in a culture immersion programme fail in their handling of expatriates. Today, all companies operate in a multi-cultural environment. Even small mom and pop operations are exposed to customers, suppliers, or regulators who are from other cultures. Nearly every country is now a cultural melting pot of residents, and those that are relatively homogenous still have influx from visitors and tourists. While it is easy to downplay the importance of a single tourist who has wandered off the beaten path, it is impossible in this day and age of modern technology to estimate the importance of that single customer. Placed in context, an unfortunate interchange with an individual who turns out to an important stakeholder in his or her professional community can be devastating. Attitudes of employees to customers or suppliers can cause supply chains to dissolve, large numbers of customers to disappear, or contracts to be cancelled. In a sense globalisation has caused a return to small town front porch mentality where everyone either knows everyone or knows his or her cousin. The Internet and global communications offers such anonymity that it is now possible for a companys largest customer to conduct a surprise visit and not be recognised. Given the right – or wrong – circumstances, the impact on business can be devastating. It is this concern, the concern for the international aspect of all business today, that ties together large MNCs and small, at-home operations and cautions us to develop a greater understanding of other cultures, whether we manage expatriates, or merely serve customers in our tiny walk-in. How a company treats its customers and stakeholders affects the survivability of the business, and retention of well-qualified and well-trained employees is part of that survivability, especially when it relates to cultural aspects of functionality. This paper, then, addresses the system of business that relates to intercultural communication and impacts management of expatriates as well as the home office. At the present time, there is a great deal of research that shows the difficulty that expatriates face on assignment and on repatriation, and there is significant research that indicates that cross-cultural training offers possibilities for helping these employees adapt. There is a gap in the research between these issues and the types of cross-cultural training that may lead to a decreased turnover rate. Additional research may be most helpful. When we review what types of cross-cultural training may be most useful, there is also indication that successful expatriates who return from assignment and remain with their companies may be able to add to the knowledge base of successful adaptation. It is this concept that successful expatriates contribute to knowledge management that I address in this research. Successful management of this knowledge may contribute not only to a lowered turnover rate among expatriates, but may offer suggestions to how business can lower the turnover rate overall. I suggest the concept that expatriate management tends to overlook one extremely important concept: that turnover EVERYWHERE is extremely high, and it will be no different in the expatriate population if we treat regular employees in the same manner that we treat expatriates, assuming the expatriate programme is successful. Thus, development of a plan to manage and retain expatriates has great generalisability for the companys population as a whole with regard to retention. This concept has been touched on in the available research but is not fully developed. A work developing this concept can truly add to the field. 1.3 Aims and Objectives The aims and objectives of the research will be to explore why some MNCs are successful at increasing retention of expatriates and what role cross-cultural training plays in that success; to explain the steps that successful MNCs take in utilising the knowledge they gain in working with expatriates as a form of knowledge management, and to describe how this information can be utilised by other companies to lower the overall general turnover rate. A number of research questions evolved that will be useful in determining why some companies are so successful with expatriates while others are not. The questions will guide the research: How do some MNCs lower the rate of turnover of expatriates? How do companies that lower the rate of turnover of expatriates utilise what they have learned as a form of knowledge management? What role does cross-cultural training play in successful retention of expatriates? What is the generalisability of the success of expatriate management in the MNC as a form of knowledge management and its application to the reduction of soaring general turnover rates? 1.4 Rationale The overall turnover rate of employees throughout the world is soaring. The problem is particularly high in America. The cost to companies of employee turnover is so high that one sometimes wonders how the companies stay afloat. At the same time, there are a number of difficulties with expatriate management. As the rate of expatriate attrition increases, so does the cost to the multi-national company in both financial terms and in terms of morale. In researching problems with international human resources management, particularly problems associated with the management of expatriates, a link between increasing rates of general expatriate turnover and generally high rates of employee turnover seemed to present. Gaps in the research indicate there must be more research into the process of repatriation and knowledge management, for this is the point at which the greatest knowledge exchange back to the company in terms of cultural knowledge should occur. Research must determine what contributes to success repatriation and why some expatriates choose to terminate contracts early. All of these areas will be investigated. The next step, then, is to investigate why some companies seem to manage expatriate programmes successfully, and why some programmes fail. By reviewing successful expatriate management, we may learn general lessons of human resources management that may well contribute to the base of knowledge for the reduction of overall turnover rates throughout the working world. 1.5 Methodology Qualitative research seeks to address the why and how of occurrences, making it ideally suited for a project of this nature. Though there are many forms of qualitative research, two forms seem particularly applicable to the nature of this investigation. A literature review will be conducted, of course, to place the state of the knowledge of expatriate management in the context of general management of human resources. An archival investigation, however, will take and utilise the literature review as a starting point. Through a thorough investigation of archival materials available, additional research information will be gleaned. The case study method will also be utilised to investigate three specific multinational companies or organisations that have had a great deal of success with the expatriates that they managed. Case study approach allows me as the researcher to concentrate on details that might otherwise be overlooked in a traditional literature review. Archival review materials will also contribute to details of the case studies. 1.6 Chapter Outline Chapter One of the dissertation consists of an introduction to the study and places the study in context, the aims and objectives, rationale, and methodology of the paper are reviewed. Chapter Two reviews literature related to the topics of international human resources, expatriate management, turnover, and knowledge management. The literature review presents various perspectives of the research topic and reveals how previous researchers have investigated the topics. The literature review is expected to reveal gaps in the research and suggests areas that this research will explore. It is guided by the aims, objectives, and research questions, but can also provide an indication for modification of those aims, objectives, and questions if changes are needed. Finally, the chapter provides a framework for the overall research. Chapter Three discusses methodology of the research and details the strategies that were undertaken during the research, including data collection methods and methods of analysis. Methodology describes methods that were utilised to conduct the research and defines the reasons they were selected. Chapter Four provides the analysis or the synthesis of the research. It ties together the research questions, the theories behind the research, and the methods of doing the research. Finally, in a good research project, the analysis will actually raise questions that will be guidelines to future research in the field. Chapter Five details the main findings of the paper, gleaned from the analysis, and describes how the results are similar to prior research, but also how they differ. The contribution of the research to the knowledge base of expatriate management and reduction of general turnover rates will be provided, and the limitations of the research will be defined. Suggestions for future research will be provided and ways to reduce limitations of future research will be discussed in the context of the experience of myself as the researcher for this project. The paper will be concluded with a bibliography of works utilised in the preparation of the paper, and if necessary, supporting materials will be provided in appendices. 1.7 Chapter Summary This chapter has set the stage for the research project and dissertation. The subject matter was introduced, and the study was placed in context of international business and human resources. The aims and objectives of the research were described and the rationale for the dissertation was produced. A summary of the methodology of the paper was provided, and a chapter outline of the work was also presented. In summary, Chapter One set the stage for the research and provided an overview of the project. Chapter Two Literature Review 2.1 Chapter Introduction Today, all companies have retention problems (Ramiall, 2004). In 2005, the United States had an overall turnover rate of employment of 23%. Companies face fierce competition in the quest to retain employees (Mitchell, Holtom, and Lee, 2001). Hay (2002) reports that in the past 10 years, employee turnover increased by 25%, making the problem of retaining employees the number one employment problem in the United States (Kaye Jordan-Evans, 2000). With a shortage of potential labour until approximately 2012, the pool of qualified and available labour is small, making the problem of retention much more intense. Clearly a need exists to lower the rate of turnover in companies. While the presented references above are in evidence of a turnover rate in American companies, the issue is global, especially in this day of large multi-national companies. The problem is, perhaps, even more pronounced with expatriates due to the large amount of money it takes each MNC to recruit, train, and support expatriates and their families. A retained expatriate can be an asset to the company; a lost expatriate represents a significant financial drain. It makes sense, then, to explore how expatriates can be retained, and to utilise the knowledge gained to lower the overall turnover rate of the company, thereby increasing retention and decreasing costs. Retention of expatriates contributes to the companys knowledge management capacities and to retention of trained employees in the MNCs, and cross-cultural training seems to offer one of the most promising avenues to encourage retention of qualified employees. The literature review served as a basis of study during the preliminary phases of the project and was supplemented a great deal in the final paper. As the research developed, it was clear that there were many avenues that needed to be explored to gain a holistic understanding of the issues relating to international human resources management and successful administration of expatriation programmes. Through the course of the initial review of the literature, a link became clear between lessons learned by companies that have successful expatriation programmes and companies that could utilise this knowledge in lowering their turnover rates. All businesses today, it is clear, have a multi-cultural aspect that must be addressed. The issue then becomes how multi-culturalism will be addressed and how knowledge gained from successful expatriation can contribute to the overall knowledge of successful MNCs (Sizoo, Plank, Iskat, and Sernie, 2005). This project will help bridge the gap between l arge MNCs with offices in other nations, and smaller companies that may benefit from their knowlege. 2.2 Importance of International Human Resources Management Tye and Chen (2005) state that capturing and maintaining a competitive advantage is not the most important issue for many organisations. At its lowest common denominator, the purpose of business is to make a profit. Friedman (1970) even argued that business has a social responsibility to make a profit for its investors. Friedman argued that business leaders needed to do whatever it takes to acquire and maintain that profit. Tye and Chen (2005) point out that there is now a general consensus that larger companies must operate successfully on a global level in order to capture and maintain the competitive advantage which leads to profit. As businesses have an increasingly international role, how to manage the people in the business on a global scale becomes a huge challenge (Lee and Liu, 2006). Businesses cannot operate without people, despite an increasing dependence upon technology. In order to retain people, there must be adequate human resources management systems. For large international companies, then, the human resources managers and their systems must aim towards acquiring and maintaining people who are competent not only in business, but in functioning in the international environment (Liu and Lee, 2006). For many years, the tendency was to believe that management was the same whether the company being managed was in the managers home country or a foreign land. This universal approach to management is considered an ethnocentric approach (Dowling and Welch, 2004), in which the values established in a corporations home country are the values that predominate through every field office. In this form of management, all of the practices of the business stem from practices and values of the home office, and all of the employees that become managers in field offices are hired and trained at the home office. While this approach offers certain advantages (for instance, the level of corporate control), it is not the most beneficial model of operation if one hopes to expand the business significantly in the targeted areas of other nations (Kuhn, 2000). Indeed, as Kuhn points out, ethnocentric organisations have essentially no advantage in local market areas. What difference is there between a human resources manager that deals with employees within the bounds of one nation, and one that deals with international situations? The basic difference is that when dealing with international human resources issues, the level of complexity between the rules, regulations, and operating mechanisms between different countries can be overwhelming, especially when more than one group of national workers is involved (Dowling and Welch, 2004). The difference may well be less pronounced in the nations of the European Union, where laws and operating regulations have been standardised to a degree, but national identities of workers complicate the issues. Indeed, even strong cultural identification roles can impact the path that international human resources managers must take. In addition, employees who will be fulfilling an expatriate role must be carefully matched to the job. In 1998, Stone suggested that the selection of expatriate employees is much more difficult than selecting personnel who will remain in the home office. This contention, however, is one of the concepts that will be investigated in the research. While Dowling and Welch argue that the selection of expatriates with personal issues such as low capacity to adapt, poor emotional stability, or bad attitude leads towards failure of the match to the expatriates job, one might argue just as easily that a bad attitude, immaturity, and refusal to adapt are indicative of poor selection of any employee, not just an employee who will be expatriated. It may seem simplistic, but a good, stable expatriate employee will make a good employee. On the other hand, a good employee will not necessarily make an adequate expatriate. It is this rule that led to my decision to explore a potential link between expatriate retention and retention of the average employee. Sizoo et al. (2005) concluded that adequate c ross-cultural training of any employee in a MNC greatly increases employee effectiveness and can lead to increased promotions and pay raises, which cut turnover rates. The argument could also be made that the same would apply in smaller companies, especially those in areas with a high cross-cultural population component. An expatriate who has negative attitude, poor emotional stability and maturity, lack of language ability, and a low level of adaptability also is a poor choice in host nations, where the chance of culture shock already exists (Dowling Welch, 2004). 2.3 Turnover Todays companies are faced with the prospect of continually replacing employees who have left the company. The cost of turnover is high both in direct turnover rates related to the physical process of hiring and firing and in the indirect rates of education, checking of the references, and so on. The costs are even higher if the member that leaves is a member of the expatriates, or if the member has recently repatriated at cost to the company. Thus the company cannot afford to keep replacing employees from a financial cost and a morale cost. Some turnover is caused by tension with management while other turnover is caused by having unclear job expectations. Increasingly in the international arena employees leave because they do not understand what they have to do to get ahead, or they feel they followed the companys directions and are still not appreciated for the service they have rendered. Peter Senge has identified three types of leaders: the peer leader, the line manager and the executive. Each one works to help build collaboration, to educate staff, and to strengthen the company culture. Teamwork and teaching should be utilised as a method of advancement (Senge 1990, 1996) and it is in this way that the expatriate can be particularly utilised. These employees can become leaders, and be promoted to management in the future. 2.4 Four Approaches to Management Orientation What exactly constitutes a multi-national company? Loosely defined, it is a corporation or large company that provides goods and/or services in more than one country. The MNC may have operations in a fair number of other countries. To be able to supply goods or services across national lines, the company must have significant resources. Thus, MNCs by their definition have access to a great deal of money or financial backing. The company is financially able to acquire the goods, services, and personnel acquired to function at a high level. To put it bluntly, companies with large budgets can purchase the best; few people would argue that a multi-national company as large, for example, as Wal-Mart, will have an operating budget larger than some small companies. Given that many companies have budgets that can buy the best, why is the expatriate failure rate so high? Black and Mendenhall (1990) pointed out that over 40% of all assigned expatriates return home early, and the expatriates that remain in the host nation, only 50% function effectively. Does the failure of the expatriate lie solely in the personality and training of the individual expatriate? Some evidence suggests that failure may be associated with the approach to management that the multi-national organisation chooses. Management approaches in multi-national companies can be polycentric, ethnocentric, geocentric, or electocentric. Each of the four models is discussed briefly below. Polycentric The polycentric approach to management utilises the belief that managers in host countries know the best way to approach work within their country and are the most familiar with effective ways to manage businesses within their country (Banai and Sama, 2000). Companies that adopt this attitude have generally concluded that all countries are different and that local subsidiaries should adopt policies and practices that are appropriate locally and are under the direct supervision of local managers from the local area (Banfield, 1998). Kuhn (2000) states that polycentric organisations offer the greatest local control to subsidiaries, which can be a tremendous advantage when the local manager is effective and savvy to local culture, customs, and business operations. Polycentric models are sometimes referred to as multilocal models, or even a multidomestic organisation. Ethnocentric As pointed out earlier, ethnocentric management embodies the concept that the home office manager knows best, regardless of the circumstances or culture of the host office. Dowling and Welch (2004) characterise this as a universal approach to management and believe that the main advantage of this form of management is the level of control it offers the MNC. Another advantage of this mode of operation, however, is that it presents the company with a more homogenous approach to business: no matter which office one is in, things are done the same way; managers are selected for the same reasons regardless of the location, and promotional paths remain the same regardless of where one transfers. Kuhn (2000) states, however, that this mode of operation is a distinct disadvantage if one a company wishes to expand operations in the host company. It offers no benefits when dealing with the local population, and may well be a disadvantage in terms of understanding local procedures and cultural impacts to business. Geocentric In the geocentric mode of operation, the company makes the decision that no one culture or organisation is better than another. Instead, the company concentrates on operating in as culture-free a manner as possible. Every effort is made to have a central control system, combined with a high level of standardisation. The organisation itself encourages all office to participate in decision-making based on a global rather than local context (Myloni, Harzing, and Mirza, 2004). Geocentric organisations offer one huge advantage: they are able to hire the best person for the job, without regard to nationality or national location. According to Kuhn (2000), the geocentric mode of organisation offers the best local advantage, along with the polycentric mode. Companies that embrace the geocentric view are sometimes referred to as borderless, or transnational. Electocentric / Regiocentric This model, also known as transregional model, is a model of globalisation that combines the geocentric model with the polycentric model. Companies that adopt this model of operation will frequently develop into a global or geocentric model of operation. In this mode, managers are hired locally and may be transferred within a general geographic region. The region tends to be fairly independent of the home company and does enjoy a certain amount of autonomy. This mode offers most of the benefits of the geocentric model. 2.5 Other Views of Management Approach Goshal and Bartlett (1998) present a different few of management approaches of multinational companies. They define the approaches as multinational, global, international, and transnational. In their definition, multinational companies decentralise and tend to regard their overseas offshoots as separate business acquisitions with their own autonomy

Plato Vs Shelley :: essays research papers

Many works of literature provide responses to much debated topics. Opinions are brought forth by means of rhetorical devices and supported by some type of accepted truth. In two such pieces, The Republic by Plato and â€Å"A Defense of Poetry† by Shelley, Plato expresses a belief about poetry that Shelley disagrees with and responds to. Through rhetorical devices such as metaphors and symbolism and the use of deductive logic and Socratic writing, Plato provides a strong, very supported argument while Shelley’s long sentence structure, analogies and metaphors are weak in comparison.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The way in which Plato uses deductive logic to express his opinion allows him to fully develop his ideas without making assertions that are incredible. Plato begins with the idea of the ultimate â€Å"maker of the bed†, which he refers to as G-d which is easily accepted by the majority of an audience. Plato believed that there is only one who â€Å"makes the essence of the bed,† (44) the single idea and therefore that is the truth. From there he goes to the carpenter. â€Å"There is another (bed) which is the work of the carpenter.† (44) And finally Plato defines his thesis through metaphor. He uses a metaphor that compares the work of a poet to a mirror. â€Å"Turning a mirror round and round – you would soon enough make the sun and the heavens, and the earth and yourself, and other animals and plants, and all other things of which we were just speaking, in the mirror†¦but they would be appearances only.† (44) The way in wh ich the writing is interactive with two people creates contradictions, which challenge Plato’s beliefs, yet they are still proven throughout. â€Å"Why not? For the duller eye may often see a thing sooner than the keener. â€Å"Very true, but in your presence, even if I had any further notion, I could not muster courage to utter it.† (43) While this Socratic writing helps Plato to make his argument even more concrete, Shelley uses essay form to portray his ideas somewhat in response to beliefs like those of Plato.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Shelley’s writing differs in form from Plato’s in that Shelley’s is more straight forward and seems almost as if it were meant to be preached. â€Å"Reason is to the imagination as the instrument to the agent, as the body to the spirit, as the shadow to the substance.† (429) The analogy that Shelley uses portrays that reason is the basis of the imagination, implying that poetry holds truth, yet it is an idealized truth, which is determined by Plato in The Republic to be essentially false.